Week Thirteen: Chapter 23

The Transformation of the World Economy:

• Aftermath of WW2 was very different 
• Capitalist victors were determined to avoid to a Depression-Era
• Technology contributed to the acceleration of economic globalization
• Economic globalization taking place in the 1970s was known as neoliberalism 
• World Bank and IMF imposed a free marketing pro-business conditions on many poor countries if they were qualified for much-needed loans

Re-globalization: 

• World Trade skyrocketed from $7 billion in 1947 to $16 trillion in 2009
• In 2005 70% of Walmart products came from China
• In 2012 MasterCard was accepted at some 33 million business in 220 countries or territories
• By 2000, 51 of the worlds largest 100 economic units were in fact transnational corporations 
• Between 1971 and 2010 almost 20 million immigrants arrived in the U.S. legally
• Many people headed to the U.S. because of the reputation for wealth and opportunity

Growth, Instability, and Inequality:

• Nothing since the Great Depression more clearly illustrated the unsettling consequences of global connectedness in the absence of global regulation than the world wide economic contraction that began in 2008
• Impoverished Central American and Caribbean families, dependent on money sent home by family members working abroad
• Economic globalization has contributed to inequalities not only at the global level and among developing countries but also within individual nations, rich and poor alike
• By 2012 mounting income inequality and the erosion of the country middle-class had become major issues in American political debate

Globalization and an American Empire:

• Americans generally seeked to distinguish themselves from Europeans have vigorously denied that they have an empire at all
• With the collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of the cold war by the early 1990's U.S. military dominance was unchecked by nay equivalent power
• Within a decade of the Soviet Union collapse, the U.S.found itself in yet another global struggle , an effort to contain or eliminate Islamic "terrorism". 
• Even France, resenting U.S. domination withdrew from the military structure of NATO in 1967
• Issues, protests, and controversies followed the American invasion of Iraq in 2003

The Globalization of Liberation: Focus on Feminism:

• Advocates of democracy sough liberation from authoritarian governments
• Feminism had begun in the West in the 19th century with a primary focus on suffrage 
• Women confronted different issues, adopted different strategies and experienced a range of outcomes

Feminism in the West:

• To highlight their demand to control their own bodies some 343 women signed a published manifesto stating that they have undergone an abortion
• Liberation for women meant becoming aware of their own oppression
• Also brought into open discussion issues involving sexuality, insisting that free love, lesbianism, and celibacy should be accorded to same respect as heterosexual marriage

Feminism in the Global South:

• women mobilized outside of the western world during the 20th century , they faced different situations than the white women in the U.S. and Europe
• Women's movement in the Global South took shape around a wide range of of issues, not all of which were explicitly gender based

International Feminism:

• Feminism registered as a global issue when the United Nations under pressure from women activist, declared 1975 as International Women's Year
• By 2006, 183 nations had ratified a UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination agains Women, which committed them to promote women legal equality, to end discrimination, to actively encourage women development and to protect their human rights
• U.S. government took strong exception to aspects of the global feminism, particularly in its emphasis on reproductive rights, like abortions or birth control

Religion and Global Modernity: 

• Enlightenment writes believed religion was headed for extinction at the face of modernity, science, communism or globalization
• However, religion has played an unexpectedly powerful role in the most recent century
• Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam had long functioned as trans-regional cultures, spreading far beyond their origin
• In the U.S. more African Americans than European Americans engage in Islamic practice

Fundamentalism on a Global Scale:

• The scientific and secular focus on global modernity challenged the core beliefs of religion 
• Many disruptions came at the hands of foreigners in form of military defeat, colonial rule, economic dependency, and cultural intrusion
• After WW2 American protestant fundamentalist came to oppose the political liberalism and sexual revolution of 1960s that touched upon homosexuality and abortion rights
• At first fundamentalist wanted to separate themselves form the secular world in their own churches and schools

Creating Islamic Societies: Resistance and Renewal in the World of Islam:

• Effort among Muslims to renew and reform the practice of Islam and to create a new religious/political order centered on a particular understanding of their faith
• Islam renewal movements gained strengths from the enormous disappoint,tents that had accumulated in the Muslim world by the 1970's
• Israel was reestablished as a Jewish state in the center of the Islamic world in 1948
• By 1970s their ideas and organizations echoed across the Islamic world
• Many young, urban, educated women adopted Islamic veil and dress voluntarily 
• Islamic revolutions took aim at hostile foreign powers

Religious Alternatives of Fundamentalism:

• Muslim intellectuals and political leaders called for a dialogue between civilizations
• Some argued that traditions can change without losing their distinctive Islamic character 
• Gulen movement advocated for interfaith and cross-cultural dialogue, multiparty democracy, nonviolence, and modern scientifically based education for boys and girls
• Claiming to be "faith-based but not faith limited" the movement rejects the fundamentalist 
• Liberal Christian groups spoke about the ethical issue arising from economic globalization Religious responses to global modernity were articulated in many voices

The Global Environment Transformed:

• 3 main factors that vastly magnified the human impact on earths ecological system 
• 1: explosion of human numbers and quadrupling of the worlds population in a single country
• 2: Humans tapping energy potential of fossil fuels
• 3: Economic growth, increasing the production of goods and services
• Massive species extinctions, plants and animals at an abnormally fast rate
• Modern industry based on fossil fuels created a pall of air pollution in many major cities
• Start of global warming
• Extreme global threats arising

Green and Global:

• Environmentalist began in the 19th century as Romantic poets
• Second wave of environmentalist began in the west

Week Thirteen: Chapter 22

The End of Empire in World History:

• In the Americas, many of the colonized people were of European descent
• In the 20th century we saw the demise of many empires
• Ottoman empire collapsed after WW1: this gave a rise to the number of of new states in Europe as well as in the Middle East
• WW2 ended the German and Japanese empires
• Intrusive U.S. presence was a big factor stimulating the Mexican American Revolution in 1910
• Much of Mexico's oil industry was owned by American and British investors

Explaining African and Asian Independence:

• The increasing democratic values of European states ran counter to the essential dictatorship of colonial rule
• The enormously powerful force of nationalism now played a major role in its disintegration
• Both the U.S. and Soviet Union, the new global super powers generally opposed the older European colonial empires. 
• World wars weakened Europe while discrediting any sense of European moral superiority
• Colonial rules began to plan for a new political relationship with their Asian & African subjects
• Planning for decolonization include gradual political reforms, investments in railroads, ports, and telegraph lines: the holding elections and the writing of circumstances 
• "Fathers" of their new countries were
• Gandhi and Nehru in India
• Sukarno in Indonesia
• Ho Chi Ninh in Vietnam 
• Nkrumah in Ghana 
• Mandela in South Africa
• Beneath the common goal of independence they struggled with one another over questions of leadership, power, strategy, ideology, and the distribution or material benefits

Comparing Freedom Struggles:

• Nationalism surfaced in Vietnam in the early 1900's, but the country didn't achieve full political independence until the mid 1970's
• In West Africa, nationalist relied on peaceful political pressure to achieve indep. (strikes, mass)
• 8 yrs of warfare preceded Algerian independence from France in 1962
• India was among the first colonies to achieve independence & provide a model and inspiration 
• South Africa was among the last to throw off political domination by whites

The Case of India: Ending British Rule

• British differed from earlier invaders in ways that promoted a growing sense of India identity
• The most important political expression of an all-Indian identify took shape in the Indian National Congress (INC) often called Congress Party, established in 1885
• INC was largely an urban phenomenon and quite moderate in its demands
• INC had difficulty gaining  a mass following among India's vast peasant population
• British attacks on the Islamic Ottoman Empire antagonized India's muslims
• Colonial India became independent in 1947 as two countries 
• A muslim Pakistan itself divided into two wings 1000 miles apart

The Case of South Africa: Ending Apartheid:

• South Africa's freedom struggle was very different from that of India's
• County's black African majority had no political rights whatsoever within the central state
• Term "Afrikaner" reflected their image of themselves as "white africans"
• Had a developed mature industrial economy by the early 20th century
• By the 1960's the economy had benefited from extensive foreign investment and loans
• Native Reserves served as ethic homelands that kept Africans divided along tribal lines
• Established in 1912 the African National Congress (ANC), liked its Indian predecessor was led by male, educated, professional, and middle-class Africans who were "Civilized Men"
• Women were denied full membership in the ANC until 1943
• Soweto rebellion persisted, and by the 1980's spreading urban violence 
• The 1994 elections brought the ANC to power
• Unlike India these divisions did not occur along religious lines, rather it was race, ethnicity, and ideology that generated dissension and sometimes violence
• South Africa, unlike India, acquired its political freedom as an intact and unified state

Experiments in Political Order: Party, Army, and the Fate of Democracy:

• Many developing countries were culturally very diverse with little loyal to a central state
• The British began to hand over power in a gradual way well before complete independence was granted in 1947
• Africans sometimes suggested that their traditional cultures based on communal rather than individualistic values
• African economic performance since independence has been the poorest in developing world
• Economic disappointments, class resentment, and ethnic conflicts provided the context for numerous military takeovers
• Meanwhile military rule was something new and unexpected in Africa, Latin American armed forces had long intervened in political life
• Cuba revolution of 1959 brought Fidel Castro to power, establishing in Latin American a communist outpost intent on spreading its revolutionary message 
• in 1970 Chileans elected a Marxist politician, Salvador Allende, whose Popular United Party brought together the countries socialist and communists
• Allende warmly welcomed Fidel Castro for a month long visit in 1971in efforts to achieve genuine revolutionary change by legal and peaceful and legal means. It failed
• Despite the democratic setbacks if tea 1960s and 70's, beginning the 1980s a remarkable political reversal brought popular movements, multiparty elections, and new constitutions to a number of developing countries
• Some elected leaders turned authoritarian once in office

Experiments in Economic Development: Changing Priorities, Varying Outcomes:

• At the top of the agenda for the Global South was economic development, a process that meant growth or increasing production as well as distributing the fruits of that growth to raise living standards 
• Economic development took place in societies sharply divided by class, religion, ethnic groups and gender in a face of explosive population growth 
• Colonial rule had provided only the most slender foundations for modern development 
• Often new nations came to independence with low literacy rates and a weak private economy
• In China and India, the new approach generated rapid economic growth, but also growing inequalities and social conflicts
• The classic contrast to Latin American approaches the industrial development lay East Asia where South Korea chose a different strategy 
• An emphasis on city based industrial development, stirred by vision of a rapid transition to modernity, led to a neglect or exploitation of rural areas and agriculture 
• Women also were central to many governments increased interest in curtailing pop growth
• The benefits and drawbacks of foreign aid, investment, and trade have likewise been contentious issues 
• Between 1980s and 2000 the average income in forty-three of Africa's poorest countries dropped by 25%, pushing living standards for many 

Experimenting with Culture: The Role of Islam in Turkey and Iran:

• In the aftermath of WW1 modern Turkey emerged from the ashes of the Ottoman Empire
• Although women were not forbidden to wear the veil, many elite women abandoned it and set the tone for feminine fashion in Turkey
• Married women could no longer file for divorce or attend school
• By the end of the 21st century, almost 60 percent of university students were women
• Women right to vote remained in tact

Week Twelve: Chapter 21

• 
  Global Communism
  
  
  • Modern communist found its political and philosophical roots in the 19th century European socialism, inspired by the teachings of Karl Marx
  • Marxist theory, communism also was the final stage of historical dev when social equality and collective living would develop
  • Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, etc. didn't achieve the kind of advanced industrial capitalism that Karl Marx had viewed as a prerequisite for revolution and socialism
  • After WW2 communist parties play an important role in Greece, France, and Italy
  • Communist ideology derived from European Marxism though it was substantially modified
  • During Cold war, Warsaw Pact gathered the Soviet Union & European communist states in a military alliance designed to counter threat Western capitalist countries of NATO alliance
  
  Russia: Revolution in a Single Year
  
  
  • Communist came to power in 1917 
  • Uprise in activist, many of them socialist
  • Feb 1917 Tsar Nicholas II lost support & forced to abdicate the throne ended Romanov dynasty 
  • Non-Russian nationalist demanded greater autonomy or even independence 
  • Lenin believed Russian, despite its industrial backwardness, was ready for a socialist revolution that would spark further revolutions in more developed countries of Europe
  •  During the civil war the bolsheviks harshly regimented the economy, seized grain from the angry peasants, suppressed nationalist rebellions, and perpetrated bloody atrocities
  • After the civil war they renamed the country Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) or Soviet Union
  • Soviet Union remained a communist island in a capitalist sea for the next 25 yrs
  
  China: A Prolonged Revolutionary Struggle
  
  
  • Communism triumphed in the ancient land of China in 1949
  • Karl Marx were barely known in China in the 20th century 
  • 1921 Chinese Communist Party CPP founded, aimed at organizing country's working class
  •  Guomindang (Nationalist Party) who governed after 1928 promoted a modern development 
  • Women's associations enrolled hundreds and promoted literacy 
  • Japans brutal invasion of China gave the CCP a decisive opening, that attack destroyed Guomindang's control over the country
  • Guomindang seemed to be more interested in limiting communism than fighting the Japanese
  • CCP reduced rents, taxes, and interest payments for peasants: taught literacy to adults and mobilized women for the struggle
  • CCP addressed Chinas major problems, foreign imperialism and peasant exploitation
  • In 1949 (4 yrs after the wars end) the Chinese communists beat the Guomindang
  
  Building Socialism
  
  
  • Communist parties set the construction of socialist societies
  • Building socialism means the modernization & industrialization of their backward society
  • In 1917 Russian Bolsheviks faced a hostile capitalist world alone
  • Chinese communist established Soviet Union as an ally
  • Chinas population was much greater, industrial base far smaller, and availability for agriculture was far more limited than in the Soviet Union 
  
  Communist Feminism
  
  
  • Earliest & most revolutionary actions of the new communist regime were efforts to liberate & mobilize women 
  • Declared full legal and political equality for women
  • Similar policies occurred in China: Marriage Law of 1950 allowed for equal property laws between man and women, free choice in marriage, easy divorce and widows could remarry
  • By 1978 50% of agriculture workers & 38% non agricultural laborers were women
  • Women rarely appeared on the top political leadership of China or Soviet Union
  
  Socialism in the Countryside
  
  
  • Soviet Union & China expropriated landlords' estates & redistributed land evenly with peasants 
  • In China land, tools, houses and money were redistributed to the poorer members of villages
  • 1 to 2 million landlords were killed by 1952
  • Collective farms in China were peaceful but in Soviet Union they were violent and extensive
  • Russian peasants slaughtered & consumed thousands of animals rather than give them to collectives: Stalin singled them out, killed them or deported them to rural areas
  • Created a famine which killed 5 million from starvation and malnutrition in Soviet Union
  • Chinas disruption of marketing networks & terrible weather created a massive famine: killing 20 million or more between 1959-1962, dwarfing the earlier Soviet famine
  
  Communism and Industrial Development
  
  
  • Soviet Union & China thought industrialization was fundamental 
  • Soviet Union constructed the foundations of an industrialized society that beat Nazi Germany in WW11 during the 1930s: improved living standards by the 1960s & '70s
  • Both countries increased their literary and educational opportunities
  • In the Soviet Union industrialization was centered in rural areas, and had a small elite group that remained in the ruling class, under Stalins rule
  • Chinese under Mao Zedong promoted industrialization in rural areas and had a widespread of practical technological education for all rather than relying on a small group of elites
  • The massive famine temporarily discredited Mao's radicalism 
  • The Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution combated the capitalist tendencies that penetrated the highest ranks of the Communist Party
  • Cultural Revolution rejected feminism
  • Late 1980's environmental problems came about: 30% of food products were contaminated
  • 70 million people lived in cities with air pollution 5 times more the acceptable level
  
  The Search for Enemies
  
  
  • Communist societies of the Soviet Union and China were laced with conflict
  • Close to 1 million people were executed between 1936-1941
  • 4-5 million were sent to the gulag, where they were forced to work in horrendous conditions
  • Mao had become convinced that many within the Communist Party had been seduced by capitalist values of self-seeking and materialism
  • Rival Revolutionary groups soon began fighting with one another, violence erupted throughout the country and the civil war threatened China
  
  Military Conflict and the Cold War
  
  
  • The initial arena of the cold war was Europe
  • No shooting war occurred between the two sides
  • The vietnamese united their country under communist control by 1975
  • Soviet forces intervened military and were soon bogged down in a war they couldn't win
  • Revolutionary Fidel Castro came to power in 1959
  • Stalins death in 1953 secretly deployed nuclear-tipped Soviet missiles to Cuba 
  • Soviets removed their missiles from Cuba in return for an American promise not to invade the island
  
  Nuclear Standoff and Third World Rivalry
  
  
  • The Cuban missile crisis gave concrete expressions to the most novel and dangerous dimension of the cold war
  • End of WWII prompted the Soviet Union to redouble its efforts to acquire the weapons, succeeded them in 1949 
  • Delivery systems included bomber aircraft and missiles that could rapidly propel numerous warheads across whole continents and oceans
  • A single bomb is a single instant could have obliterated any major city
  • During the cold war, leaders of the two superpowers knew that in nuclear war both would lose
  • Neither superpower was able to completely dominate its purposed allies
  • Americans refused to assist Egypt in building the Aswan Dam in the mid 1950's, they then developed a close relationship with the Soviet Union
  
  The Cold War and the Superpowers
  
  
  • The need for quick and secret decision making gave rise in the U.S. to a strong or "imperial" presidency and a "national security state"
  • Sustaining this immense military effort was a flourishing U.S. economy and increasing a middle class 
  • Americans sent their capital abroad in growing amounts
  • American movies took about 70% of the market in Europe
  • In Eastern Europe, Yugoslav leaders early on had rejected Soviet domination of their internal affairs
  • Soviets and China found themselves sharply opposed, owing to territorial disputes, ideological differences and rivalry for communist leadership
  • Communist China went to war against a communist Vietnam in 1979, while Vietnam invaded a communist Cambodia in the late 1970s
  
  Paths to the End of Communism
  
  
  • Act 1: began in China during 1970s following the death of leader Mao Zedong
  • Act 2: took place in Eastern Europe in the miracle year on 1989
  • The curtain had fallen on the communist era and on the cold war as well
  • In both economic and moral terms, the communist path to the modern world was increasingly seen as a road to nowhere
  
  
  

Week Eleven

An Accident Waiting to Happen:

• Italy and Germany joined their fragmented territories into two major new powers around 1870
• A system of alliances intended to keep the peace, created obligations that drew the Great Powers of Europe into a general war by early August 1914
• None of the major states planned or predicted the assassination of the archduke 
• Industrialization of warfare had generated an array of novel weapons like submarines, tanks, airplanes, poison gas, machine guns and barbed wire
• 2 million Americans took part in the first U.S. military action on European soil & helped turn the tide in favor of the British and the French

Legacies of the Great War:

• War went on for more than 4 years before ending in German defeat in November 1918
• It became a "total war" requiring the mobilization of each country's entire population 
• Aftermath of war brought social and cultural changes to ordinary Europeans and Americans
• As the war ended, suffrage movements revived & women received the right to vote
• The Treaty of Versailles concluded the firs World War in 1919 but it eventually established conditions that contributed to the second world war only 20 years later
• Germany lost its colonial empire & 15% of its European territory and was required to pay heavy reparations to the winners, creating great resentment
• Soldier Adolf Hitler declared vengeance
• Brought an end to the Ottoman Empire
• Latin American countries were bystanders but benefited by selling nitrates used in explosives
• World War 1 brought the United States to center stage as a global power

Capitalism Unraveling: The Great Depression:

• Never had the flaws of capitalism been so devastating as the Great Depression of 1929
• American market initially crashed October 24, 1929
• 11 Wall Street finances committed suicide
• World trade dropped by 62%
• Banks closed so people lost their life savings
• Political and economic changes stimulated in Latin America by the Great Depression
• President Franklin Roosevelt New Deal (1933-1942) experimental combination of reforms seeking to restart economic growth and to prevent similar events in the future
• To help the unemployed, the poor and elderly, the New Deal worked on the Social Security System, minimum wage and various relief and welfare programs

The Fascist Alternative in Europe:

• Fascists bitterly condemned individualism, liberalism, feminism, parliamentary democracy, and communism because it "weakened the nation" 
• Small fascist movements appeared in Western European countries but had title political impact
•  During the great depression trade unions, peasant movements, and various communist and socialist parties threatened  to establish social order with strikes and land seizures
• Mussolini promised order in\ the streets and an end to bickering party-based politics
• Mussolini government suspended democracy and imprisoned, deported & executed opponents

Hitler and the Nazis:

• European fascism took shape as the Nazi Party under the leadership of Adolf Hitler
• Nazis did not achieve national power until 1933
• Traditional elites attacked the democratic politicians who had the inevitable task of signing the Treaty of Versailles 
• Civilian socialist, communists, and Jews had betrayed the nation
• In 1933, Hitler was legally installed as the chancellor of the German government 
• Hitler had the major support because his ideas brought Germany out of the Great Depression
• Hitler restricted Jewish life,  had people loot their shops and exclude them from most things
• Nazis wanted to limit women largely to the home
• WW1 and the Great Depression brought political and economic collapse 
• Nazi phenomenon represented a moral collapse in the West
• "Scientific racism" linked the size of the skull to human behavior and personality

Japanese Authoritarianism:

• Began its industrialization and empire-building states in the 19th century
• Did not really participate in WW1, their economy increased during this time
• Education expanded, women worked in new professions
• Shrinking world demand for silk impoverished rural dwellers who raised silkworms
• Million or more rural workers unemployed
• Generals and admirals exercised great political authority 
• Their projects of conquest & empire building collided with the interest of established world powers such as the U.S. and Britain, launching a second and even more terrible global war

The Road to War in Asia:

• China had deteriorated further leading to a full scale attack on heartland China in 1937
• This started WW2 in Asia
• Japanese attack on the U.S. at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii on December 1941
• The U.S. increasingly saw Japan as aggressive, oppressive and a threat to U.S. economics

The Road to War in Europe:

• Nazism was born out of WW2 
• WW1 was accidental and unintentional but WW2 was deliberate and planned 
• Hitler prepared the country for war but also pursued territorial expansion
• Germany attacked Poland triggering WW2 in Europe 
• Germans launched a destructive air war against Britain and in 1941 attacked the Soviet Union
• U.S. joined the struggle against Germany in 1942
• German defeat in May 1945

The Outcomes of Global Conflict:

• During the Rape of Nanjing 1937-1938 some 200k-300k Chinese were killed & mutilated
• In the Soviet Union women constituted more than half of the industrial workforce by 1945
• Were urban bombing, blockade, mass murder, starvation, and concentration camps
• 6 million Jews perished in a technologically sophisticated form of mass murder
• Practices of man slaughter continued in Cambodia, Rwanda, Bosnia, and the Sudan 
• Tens on thousands of Africans had fought for the British or French

The Recovery of Europe:

• 1948-1970's Western European economies grew rapidly, improving living standards
• European Coal and Steel Community is jointly manage the production of this critical item
• Italy, France, West Germany, Belgium, Netherlands, and Luxembourg established the European Economic Community (EEC)
• Later renamed the European Union since more countries joined
• American economic, political and military security commitment to Europe 
• Formed a political and military alliance known as the Northern Atlantic Theory Organization (NATO)